REFRIGERATOR

A refrigerator referred to as a fridge is a common household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump which transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room. Cooling is a popular food storage technique in developed countries and works by decreasing the reproduction rate of bacteria. The device is thus used to reduce the rate of spoilage of foodstuffs.
A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. Optimum temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 °C. A similar device which maintains a temperature below the freezing point of water is called a freezer.The refrigerator is a relatively modern invention among kitchen appliances. It replaced the icebox, which had been a common household appliance for almost a century and a half prior. For this reason, a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox.
refrigerators keep things cold because of the nature of heat. The Second Law of Thermodynamics essentially states that if a cold object is placed next to a hot object, the cold object will become warmer and the hot object will become cooler. A refrigerator does not cool items by lowering their original temperatures; instead, an evaporating gas called a refrigerant draws heat away, leaving the surrounding area much colder. Refrigerators and air conditioners both work on the principle of cooling through evaporation.

A refrigerator consists of two storage compartments - one for frozen items and the other for items requiring refrigeration but not freezing. These compartments are surrounded by a series of heat-exchanging pipes. Near the bottom of the refrigerator unit is a heavy metal device called a compressor. The compressor is powered by an electric motor. More heat-exchanging pipes are coiled behind the refrigerator. Running through the entire system is pure ammonia, which evaporates at -32 Celsius. This system is closed, which means nothing is lost or added while it is operating. Because liquid ammonia is a powerful chemical, a leaking refrigerator should be repaired or replaced immediately. The refrigeration process begins with the compressor. Ammonia gas is compressed until it becomes very hot from the increased pressure. This heated gas flows through the coils behind the refrigerator, which allow excess heat to be released into the surrounding air. This is why users sometimes feel warm air circulating around the fridge. Eventually the ammonia cools down to the point where it becomes a liquid. This liquid form of ammonia is then forced through a device called an expansion valve. Essentially, the expansion valve has such a small opening that the liquid ammonia is turned into a very cold, fast-moving mist, evaporating as it travels through the coils in the freezer. Since this evaporation occurs at -32 degrees Celsius, the ammonia draws heat from the surrounding area. This is the Second Law of Thermodynamics in effect. Cold material, such as the evaporating ammonia gas, tend to take heat from warmer materials, such as the water in the ice cube tray.

As the evaporating ammonia gas absorbs more heat, its temperature rises. The cool ammonia still draws heat from the warmer objects in the fridge, but not as much as the freezer section. The ammonia gas is drawn back into the compressor, where the entire cycle of pressurization, cooling and evaporation begins.

BALLOONS

The first big balloon was made by two French brothers in 17Th century, Joseph Michael and Stephen in 1783. It was made with pieces of paper and light cloth. Hot fire was placed under it and it soared upward when it was released. 

That same year A.C. Charles made a gas balloon. There was a valve that would open and allow hydrogen to fill the balloon. to go higher the balloonist would release sandbags from the cockpit. The valve would deflate to head back downward.Soon the popularity of the balloon spread. People were talking about this new invention.In 1785 two men crossed the English Channel in one try in a balloon. It surprised millions of people. In 1797 a French balloonist Andre Garnerin amazed the crowd by leaping from a balloon and falling safely to the ground.In the Civil War, World War 1, and World War 2 balloons were used to observe enemy territory.Today all over the World you can ride balloons for fun.

A balloon is an inflatable flexible bag filled with a gas, such as helium, hydrogen, nitrous oxide, oxygen, or air. Modern balloons can be made from materials such as rubber, latex, polychloroprene, or a nylon fabric, while some early balloons were made of dried animal bladders. Some balloons are used for decorative purposes, while others are used for practical purposes such as meteorology, medical treatment, military defense, or transportation. A balloon's properties, including its low density and low cost, have led to a wide range of applications. The inventor of the rubber balloon was Michael Faraday in 1824, via experiments with various gases.Party balloons are mostly made of a natural latex tapped from rubber trees, and can be filled with air, helium, water, or any other suitable liquid or gas. The rubber's elasticity makes the volume adjustable.

Filling the balloon with air can be done with the mouth, a manual or electric inflator (such as a hand pump), or with a source of compressed gas.When rubber or plastic balloons are filled with helium so that they float, they typically retain their buoyancy for only a day or so. The enclosed helium atoms escape through small pores in the latex which are larger than the helium atoms. Balloons filled with air usually hold their size and shape much longer, sometimes for up to a week.
Even a perfect rubber balloon eventually loses gas to the outside. The process by which a substance or solute migrates from a region of high concentration, through a barrier or membrane, to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion. The inside of balloons can be treated with a special gel which coats the inside of the balloon to reduce the helium leakage, thus increasing float time to a week or longer.

Beginning in the late 1970s, some more expensive foil balloons made of thin, unstretchable, less permeable metalized plastic films started being produced. These balloons have attractive shiny reflective surfaces and are often printed with color pictures and patterns for gifts and parties. The most important attribute of metalized nylon for balloons is its light weight, increasing buoyancy and its ability to keep the helium gas from escaping for several weeks. Foil balloons have been criticized for interfering with power lines.
Professional balloon party decorators use electronic equipment to set the exact amount of helium to fill the balloon. For non-floating balloons air inflators are used. Professional quality balloons are used, which differ from most retail packet balloons by being larger in size and made from 100% biodegradable latex.

         
            MOVIE PROJECTOR

             
A movie projector is an opto-mechanical device for displaying moving pictures by projecting them on a projection screen. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination and sound devices, are present in movie cameras.
According to the theory of persistence of vision, the perceptual processes of the brain and the retina of the human eye retain an image for a brief moment of time. This theory is said to account for the illusion of motion which results when a series of film images is displayed in quick succession, rather than the perception of the individual frames in the series.Persistence of vision should be compared with the related phenomena of beta movement and phi movement. A critical part of understanding these visual perception phenomena is that the eye is not a camera, i.e.: there is no "frame rate" in the eye. Instead, the eye/brain system has a combination of motion detectors, detail detectors and pattern detectors, the outputs of all of which are combined to create the visual experience.The frequency at which flicker becomes invisible is called the flicker fusion threshold, and is dependent on the level of illumination. Generally, the frame rate of 16 frames per second is regarded as the lowest frequency at which continuous motion is perceived by humans.

It is possible to view the black space between frames and the passing of the shutter by the following technique:
Close your eyelids, then periodically rapidly blink open and closed. If done fast enough you will be able to randomly "trap" the image between frames, or during shutter motion. This will not work with television due to the persistence of the phosphors nor with LCD or DLP light projectors due to the continuity of image, although certain color artifacts may appear with some digital projection technologies.
Silent films usually were not projected at constant speeds but rather were varied throughout the show at the discretion of the projectionist, often with some notes provided by the distributor. Speeds ranged from about 18 frame/s on up - sometimes even faster than modern sound film speed. Contrary to received opinion, 16 frame/s - though sometimes used as a camera shooting speed - was dangerously inadvisable for projection, due to the high risk of the nitrate-base prints catching fire in the projector.
Since the birth of sound film, virtually all film projectors in commercial movie theaters project at a constant speed of 24 frame/s. This speed was chosen for both financial and technical reasons. When Warner Bros. and Western Electric were trying to find the proper projection speed for the new sound pictures, Western Electric went to the Warner Theater in LA and noted the AVERAGE speed at which films were projected there. They set that as the sound speed at which a satisfactory reproduction and amplification of sound could be conducted. There are some specialist formats which project at higher rates, often 48 frame/s.

Incandescent lighting and even limelight were the first light sources used in film projection. In the early 1900s up until the late 1960s, carbon arc lamps were the source of light in the almost all theaters in the world.
The Xenon arc lamp was introduced in Germany in 1957 and in the US in 1963. After film platters became commonplace in the 1970s, Xenon lamps became the most common light source, as they could stay lit for extended periods of time, whereas a carbon rod used for a carbon arc could last for an hOur at the most.
Most lamp houses in a professional theatrical setting produce sufficient heat to burn the film should the film remain stationary for more than a fraction of a second. Because of this, care must be taken in inspecting a film so that it should not break in the gate and be damaged, particularly inflammable cellulose nitrate film stock.

  ATOMIC CLOCK


An atomic clock is a clock that uses an electronic transition frequency in the microwave, optical or ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum of atoms as a frequency standard for its timekeeping element. Atomic clocks are the most accurate time and frequency standards known, and are used as primary standards for international time distribution services, to control the wave frequency of television broadcasts, and in global navigation satellite systems such as GPS.
The principle of operation of an atomic clock is not based on nuclear physics, but rather on atomic physics and using the microwave signal that electrons in atoms emit when they change energy levels. Early atomic clocks were based on masers at room temperature. Currently, the most accurate atomic clocks first cool the atoms to near absolute zero temperature by slowing them with lasers and probing them in atomic fountains in a microwave-filled cavity.

The accuracy of an atomic clock depends on the temperature of the sample atoms—colder atoms move much more slowly, allowing longer probe times, as well as having reduced collision rates—and on the frequency and intrinsic width of the electronic transition. Higher frequencies and narrow lines increase the precision.
National standards agencies maintain an accuracy of 10−9 seconds per daY and a precision set by the radio transmitter pumping the maser. These clocks collectively define a continuous and stable time scale, International Atomic Time (TAI). For civil time, another time scale is disseminated, Coordinated Universal Time(UTC). UTC is derived from TAI, but approximately synchronized, by using leap seconds, to UT1, which is based on actual rotations of the earth with respect to the solar time.



The idea of using atomic transitions to measure time was first suggested by Lord Kelvin in 1879. Magnetic resonance, developed in the 1930s by Isidor Rabi, became the practical method for doing this.In 1945, Rabi first publicly suggested that atomic beam magnetic resonance might be used as the basis of a clock. The first atomic clock was an ammonia maser device built in 1949 at the U.S. National Bureau of Standards. It was less accurate than existing quartz clocks, but served to demonstrate the concept.The first accurate atomic clock, a caesium standard based on a certain transition of the caesium-133 atom, was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK.Calibration of the caesium standard atomic clock was carried out by the use of the astronomical time scale ephemeris time (ET). This led to the internationally agreed definition of the latest SI second being based on atomic time.The SI second thus inherits the effect of decisions by the original designers of the ephemeris time scale, determining the length of the ET second.Since the beginning of development in the 1950s, atomic clocks have been based on the microwave transitions in hydrogen-1, caesium-133, and rubidium-87. The first commercial atomic clock was the Atomichron, manufactured by the National Company. More than 50 were sold between 1956 and 1960. This bulky and expensive instrument was subsequently replaced by much smaller rack-mountable devices, such as the Hewlett-Packard model 5060 caesium frequency standard, released in 1964.


In the late 1990s , two factors contributed to major advances in clocks:
1. Laser cooling and trapping of atoms.
2. Convenient counting of optical frequencies using optical combs.

In August 2004, NIST scientists demonstrated a chip-scaled atomic clock. According to the researchers, the clock was believed to be one-hundredth the size of any other. It was also claimed that it requires just 75 mW, making it suitable for battery-driven applications.

             


                 THE         ANTARCTICA

Antarctica is Earth's southernmost continent, encapsulating the South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14 million km2 , it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages at least 1.6 kilometers in thickness.

Antarctica is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 8 inches along the coast and far less inland. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89 °C . There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Only cold-adapted organisms survive there, including many types of algae, animals , bacteria, fungi, plants, and protista. Vegetation where it occurs is tundra.

The first confirmed sighting of the continent is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev. The continent, however, remained largely neglected for the rest of the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of resources, and isolation. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by 12 countries; to date, 47 countries have signed the treaty. The treaty prohibits military activities and mineral mining, prohibits nuclear blasts and power, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's ecozone. Ongoing experiments are conducted by more than 4,000 scientists of many nationalities and with various research interests.


HISTORY OF ANTARCTICA:-

Belief in the existence of a Terra Australis – a vast continent in the far south of the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Europe, Asia and North Africa – has existed since the times of Ptolemy (1st century AD), who suggested the idea to preserve the symmetry of all known landmasses in the world. Even in the late 17th century, after explorers had found that South America and Australia were not part of the fabled "Antarctica", geographers believed that the continent was much larger than its actual size.

European maps continued to show this hypothetical land until Captain James Cook's ships, HMS Resolution and Adventure, crossed the Antarctic Circle on 17 January 1773, in December 1773 and again in January 1774. Cook in fact came within about 121 km of the Antarctic coast before retreating in the face of field ice in January 1773. The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica can be narrowed down to the crews of ships captained by three individuals. According to various organizations (the National Science Foundation, NASA,the University of California, San Diego),ships captained by three men sighted Antarctica in 1820. Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen , Edward Bransfield and Nathaniel Palmer. Von Bellingshausen saw Antarctica on 27 January 1820, three days before Bransfield sighted land, and ten months before Palmer did so in November 1820. On that day the two-ship expedition led by Von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev reached a point within 32 kilometers of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there. The first documented landing on mainland Antarctica was by the American sealer John Davis in West Antarctica on 7 February 1821, although some historians dispute this claim.

   THE

         INDIAN

PARLIAMENT

The Parliament of India is the supreme legislative body in India. Founded in 1919, the Parliament alone possesses legislative supremacy and thereby ultimate power over all political bodies in India. The Parliament of India consists of the two houses and the President of India. The president has the power to call, prorogue and dissolve parliament.

The parliament is bicameral, with an upper house called as Council of States or Rajya Sabha, and a lower house called as House of People or Lok Sabha. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Sansad Bhawan in New Delhi. The Members of either house are commonly referred to as Member of Parliament or MP. The MPs of Lok Sabha are elected by direct election and the MPs of Rajya Sabha are elected by the members of the State Legislative Assemblies and Union territories of Delhi and Pondicherry only in accordance with proportional voting. The Parliament is composed of 802 MPs, who serve the largest democratic electorate in the world and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world.
Of the 552 members of the House of People, 530 members represent the territorial Constituencies in the States, 20 represent the Union territories , chosen in such manner as Parliament may by law provide. These members serve a 5 year term until the next General Election are held. House seats are apportioned among the states by population in such a manner that the ratio between that number and the population of the State is, so far as practicable, the same for all States.

The 250 Members of the Council of States serve a staggered six-year term. 12 of these members are nominated by the President and shall consist of persons having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of such matters as the following, namely literature, science, art and social service. The 238 members are representatives of the States shall be elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assembly of the State in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote. Every two years, approximately one-third of the Council is elected at a time.
The Lok Sabha is composed of representatives of people chosen by direct election on the basis of Universal Adult Suffrage. The Constitution provides that the maximum strength of the House be 552 members - 530 members to represent the States, 20 members to represent the Union Territories, and 2 members to be nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian Community. At present, the strength of the House is 545 members. The Rajya Sabha is to consist of not more than 250 members - 238 members representing the States and Union Territories, and 12 members nominated by the President. Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution. However, one third of the members retire every second year, and are replaced by newly elected members. Each member is elected for a term of six years. 

                                           

                   TITANIC             

                       

The world's interest in the fascinating history of Titanic has endured for almost 100 years. April 15, 2011 will mark the 99th anniversary of the sinking of the Titanic ship and although it has been nearly a century since the infamous luxury liner sank in the Atlantic Ocean, there continues to be a thirst for information regarding Titanic facts, myths and legends.

The White Star Line billed the Titanic as 'unsinkable' months before the ship ever embarked on her maiden voyage. Her construction was reputed to have been the best of the best.No other ship in the history of ocean travel has demanded as much interest as the Titanic. Volumes of books and reels of film have been produced regarding the most infamous shipwreck in history.

When the Titanic embarked on her maiden voyage the world was filled with hope and awe. In just a few short days those emotions turned to horror and grief. While the Titanic ship initially earned fame as the largest luxury liner on the open seas, she would obtain enduring distinction for the tragedy that took the ship to her watery grave. Return to the Titanic and discover the surprising facts that led to the ship's destruction from the moment she set sail.

The 1997 release of 'Titanic' renewed the world's interest in a bygone era and the fate of the Titanic's maiden voyage.  The Titanic movie that captured the world's interest and won a ton of Academy Awards.

 For years the world pondered what the 'ship of dreams' might have really looked like and wondered if any part of the ship still remained to be seen somewhere below the icy depths of the Atlantic Ocean. In 1985 the first pictures of the wreck were taken. The artifacts recovered from the Titanic wreck are a sad reminder of what happened that April morning of 1912. Menus, clothes, jewelry, bottles of wine, letters from passengers on the Titanic, etc. were salvaged from the depths of the ocean and put on display in museums and exhibits or auctioned.

             
   
     2G SPECTRUM














The 2G spectrum scam in India involved the issue of 1232 licenses by the ruling Congress-led UPA alliance of the 2G spectrum to 85 companies including many new telecom companies with little or no experience in the telecom sector at a price set in the year 2001. The scam involved allegations regarding the under pricing of the 2G spectrum by the Department of Telecommunications which resulted in a heavy loss to the exchequer, and the illegal manipulation of the spectrum allocation process to favour select companies.
The issue came to light after the auction of airwaves for 3G services which amounted to 677,190 crore to the exchequer. A report submitted by the Comptroller and Auditor General based on the money collected from 3G licenses estimated that the loss to the exchequer due to under pricing of the 2G spectrum was 176,379 crore.
The scam came to public notice when the Supreme Court of India took Subramaniam Swamy's complaints on record . It is a very dangerous scam by A Raja. There still many licenses sold from A Raja....

Former telecommunication minister Andimuthu Raja, who is facing trial in the country’s biggest corruption scandal, deflected blame onto the prime minister in court on Monday, saying Manmohan Singh had knowledge of a key decision, media quoted him as telling a special 2G trial court.


The pre-trial comments put the government on the defensive after efforts by Singh to move past a series of damaging corruption scandals that have paralysed government policy-making and hurt foreign investment in India, Asia's third largest economy.Raja, a member of UPA coalition partner DMK, has been charged with flouting telecoms rules and accepting bribes to favour some firms when they sought lucrative mobile phone licences at rock bottom prices, possibly causing the state losses of $39 billion in revenue.Shortly after the licences were sold on a first-come-first-serve basis a number of foreign companies, including Norway's Telenor and Etisalat, bought stakes in the Indian companies at much higher prices, hence prosecutors believe a crime was committed.


"Where is the crime? Where is the conspiracy? Telenor buying a stake in Unitech Wireless and Etisalat buying a stake in was totally legal as per the corporate law," Raja said. "The finance minister approved the sale in the presence of the PM. Let the prime minister deny it," Raja said.Ministers from the ruling Congress party were immediately deployed to say no such divestment had taken place and accused the opposition of seeking to derail the parliamentary session.

PARLIAMENT PARALYSIS THREAT?


The main opposition Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) seized on Raja's comments demanding Singh's resignation. That demand could be an ominous portent for the government gearing up to introduce major reform bills such as on land acquisition in the next session of parliament.The Congress party, the largest in the coalition government, has sought several times to distance itself from the telecoms fiasco, a case that has damaged relations with the DMK and pricked investor confidence."They are preparing the ground because it's the ideology of the BJP not to allow parliament to function," telecoms minister Kapil Sibal said. They want a paralysis because they want to hit headlines of newspapers.
Kanimozhi, an MP from Tamil Nadu has also been charged with handling $45 million worth of bribes in connection with the 2G scandal. She has denied any wrongdoing.

            

     
The Jan Lokpal Bill is a draft anti-corruption bill drawn up by prominent civil society activists seeking the appointment of a Jan Lokpal, an independent body  that would investigate corruption cases, complete the investigation within a year and envisages trial in the case getting over in the next one year.


Drafted by Justice Santosh Hegde (former Supreme Court Judge and present Lokayukta of Karnataka), Prashant Bhushan (Supreme Court Lawyer) and Arvind Kejriwal (RTI activist), the draft Bill envisages a system where a corrupt person found guilty would go to jail within two years of the complaint being made and his ill-gotten wealth being confiscated. It also seeks power to the Jan Lokpal to prosecute politicians and bureaucrats without government permission. 

Retired IPS officer Kiran Bedi and other known people like Swami Agnivesh, Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, Anna Hazare and Mallika Sarabhai are also part of the movement, called India Against Corruption. Its website describes the movement as "an expression of collective anger of people of India against corruption. We have all come together to force/request/persuade/pressurize the Government to enact the Jan Lokpal Bill. We feel that if this Bill were enacted it would create an effective deterrence against corruption."

Anna Hazare, anti-corruption crusader, began a fast-unto-death today, demanding that this bill, drafted by the civil society, be adopted. The website of the India Against Corruption movement calls the Lokpal Bill of the government an "eyewash" and has on it a critique of that government Bill. It also lists the difference between the Bills drafted by the government and civil society.

A look at features of lokpal bill :-


1. An institution called LOKPAL at the centre and LOKAYUKTA in each state will be set up .


2. Like Supreme Court and Election Commission, they will be completely independent of the governments. No minister or bureaucrat will be able to influence their investigations.

3. Cases against corrupt people will not linger on for years anymore: Investigations in any case will have to be completed in one year. Trial should be completed in next one year so that the corrupt politician, officer or judge is sent to jail within two years.

4. The loss that a corrupt person caused to the government will be recovered at the time of conviction. 

5. How will it help a common citizen: If any work of any citizen is not done in prescribed time in any government office, Lokpal will impose financial penalty on guilty officers, which will be given as compensation to the complainant.

INCREASING DEMAND OF  MOBILE PHONES


How sweet it is to be well placed to have your folks picture as your Mobile screen saver.
Thanks to the new sector of Mobile telephone accessories. For example ear phones, Bluetooth devices, cell phone cases, chargers. These are going to be available at every type of costs to suit everybody.
Cellphone has turned into one of the most used electronic items in the world today.
But cell phones by themselves aren't so engaging to buy, so Mobile companies are attempting to attract shoppers by providing them state of the art accessories. This business has soared to meet the constantly expanding demand of the customers.

Their appearance is also reinforced by these accessories. These accessories are really useful either for communication, videos, music, gaming and etc. It is even feasible to be connected to the world from the very grounds of your home. If you already own one, you may know how straightforward your life has become because of this technology.

Cell-phone makers are providing some high-end mobile phone with ready loaded accessories as software attachment or as a part of the offer with the cellphones as hardware items to boost the sales. Not only this, the mobile telephones are being made in a way that it's technology-friendly and compatible to all sorts of telephone accessories.

It is always a brilliant idea to buy some accessory for your existing phone instead of replacing the phone itself. Today, cell phones and their add-on accessories are readily available everywhere but care must be taken when you buy these because the duplication has also increased to a large extent..

Now a days, the popularity of no contact phones is also rising very fast. More and more people are opting for it because of the innumerable benefits it provides. One of its major benefit is that it gives you the facility of pay as you talk and no extra cost is charged. This has benefited lots of people to save some very good amount of money and its usages are increasing with every passing day. In today’s world where everything is costly there is no point in using a phone for which you need to pay more bills than what you really use. There is no use in having such phones.